Cognitive, Physical, and Pain-Related Correlates in Community-Dwelling Older Adults

Cognitive function will be assessed using the MoCA-K.

The skeletal muscle mass index is the sum of limb muscle mass divided by the square of height (kg/m²).

Grip strength will be measured using a dynamometer. The subject will sit in a chair with arms extended, elbows bent at 90 degrees, forearms at a natural angle, and wrists in a dorsal flexion position between 0 and 30 degrees. The subject will grip the dynamometer for 3 seconds, and the average value (kg) will be recorded after 3 attempts.

5 Sit-to-Stand (5xSST) measures the time (seconds) it takes for the subject to transition from a seated position to a standing position and back to a seated position five times. A shorter time indicates better muscle strength. The subject is instructed to cross their arms over their chest, avoid leaning their back or legs against the chair, and perform the sit-to-stand motion five times as quickly as possible.

For participants with musculoskeletal pain, the level of pain will be assessed using the Numeric Pain Rating Scale (NPRS), where 10 indicates the most severe pain and 0 indicates no pain.

The Word List Memory Test, Word List Recall Test, and Word List Recognition Test of the CERAD-K consist of cards printed with 10 high-frequency, high-imagery words. Participants are instructed to read the words aloud to become familiar with them and to maintain attention. For participants who are illiterate, the examiner reads the words aloud and instructs them to repeat them. After presenting the 10 words at a consistent pace, participants are asked to recall as many words as possible.

Executive function and attention will be assessed using the Trail Making Test Parts A / B.

Executive function will be assessed using the Stroop world color Test.

The Subjective Memory Complaints Questionnaire (SMCQ), developed by Youn et al. (2009), consists of 14 items assessing individuals' subjective experiences of everyday memory difficulties.

Static balance will be assessed using the Balancia program with the Wii Balance Board. Center of pressure variables, including path length and path sway, will be measured for 30 seconds each under eyes-open and eyes-closed conditions.

Static balance will be assessed under three conditions: normal stance, semi-tandem stance, and tandem stance.

Dynamic balance will be evaluated using the Timed Up and Go (TUG) test, in which the total time (in seconds) is recorded. Participants are instructed to sit in a chair with a backrest and, upon hearing the verbal cue "start," stand up, walk 3 meters at their usual walking speed, turn around, return to the chair, and sit down.

Gait analysis will be performed using the GAITRite walkway system. Participants will be instructed to walk across the mat at a comfortable, natural speed while wearing their usual footwear. Gait will be measured at least three times, and the mean values will be used for analysis. Key spatiotemporal variables will include gait velocity (cm/s), cadence (steps/min), step length (cm), stride length (cm), and step width (cm), as well as step length variability (%) and double support time (%).