Choline Source, Gut Microbiota and Trimethylamine-N-oxide Response

The overall goal of this research is to identify dietary and physiological factors contributing to elevated levels of trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO), a choline-derived gut-microbiome-dependent metabolite that has been identified to increase cardiovascular disease risk. Our recent findings indicate that the gut microbiome may account for variations in TMAO levels, whereby those with a greater enrichment of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes had elevated TMAO response to dietary precursor intake. However, the interaction between choline intake and gut microbiota composition as a determinant of interindividual variations in TMAO response has not been investigated. This study sought to i) compare plasma and urinary TMAO response after acute challenge containing different forms of choline; and ii) to determine the association between differences in TMAO response with differences in gut microbiota composition. To accomplish these objectives, a randomized, controlled cross-over study was conducted in healthy participants (n=41). The study incorporated three arms comprised of study meals containing (i) 600 mg choline as choline bitartrate; (ii) 600 mg choline as phosphatidylcholine; or (iii) no choline. Each meal was served with a bagel with margarine-butter spread and one cup of water, administered in a single day and separated by a 1-week washout period. Baseline blood sample was obtained by a phlebotomist using a standard venipuncture procedure, and participants collected their baseline urine sample. They also turned in a one-time self-collected baseline stool sample. Following the consumption of the study meal, serial blood samples were collected at 30 min and 1, 2, 4 and 6 h, and urine samples collected throughout the 6 h study period. At 4.5 h, participants were provided a fixed fruit snack (i.e., 2 single serving prepackaged applesauce) and water.

Inclusion criteria

• Healthy men and women of any race or ethnicity
• Age 21-50 y
• BMI 20-24.9 kg/m2 or BMI 30-39.9 kg/m2

Exclusion criteria

• Age > 50 y
• BMI outside of the normal-weight or obese range (BMI < 20 kg/m2; BMI 25-29.9 kg/m2; or BMI > or = 40 kg/m2)
• Pregnant or planning to become pregnant during the course of the study; currently breastfeeding (females)
• Vegetarians
• Smokers or recreational drug users
• Individuals with gastrointestinal diseases or complaints, chronic illnesses or other metabolic diseases (including trimethylaminuria)
• Individuals who have taken antibiotics within the past 2 months
• Individuals who are not willing to discontinue pre- and probiotics and dietary supplements for the time leading up to 2 months before the study and during the study