Using Virtual Reality Travel to Reduce Loneliness in Older Adults

Loneliness was assessed using a multi-item visual analog scale (VAS), with items presented as 100 mm horizontal lines anchored by "Not at all" (left) and "Extremely" (right). Items were adapted from the University of California, Los Angeles Loneliness Scale and modified to capture present-moment experience using a "Right now…" stem, enabling assessment of state-level rather than trait-level loneliness.

Participants were instructed to indicate their current feelings by placing a single perpendicular mark on each line corresponding to their response. VAS scores were calculated by measuring the distance in millimeters from the left anchor to the participant's mark, yielding a continuous score ranging from 0 to 100 for each item. Item scores were then averaged to compute an overall loneliness score, with higher values indicating higher levels of state loneliness.

Positive emotions was assessed using the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). The PANAS consists of 20 items, including 10 items measuring positive affect (e.g., interested, excited, enthusiastic) and 10 items measuring negative affect (e.g., distressed, upset, nervous). Participants were asked to indicate the extent to which they were experiencing each emotion right now on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (Very slightly or not at all) to 5 (Extremely), consistent with the state version of the measure. Scores for positive affect and negative affect were computed separately by averaging the corresponding items, with higher scores indicating greater levels of the respective emotional state.

Meaning in life was assessed using a modified version of the Multidimensional Existential Meaning Scale. To capture state meaning in life, the phrase "right now" was added to each item to reflect participants' momentary perceptions. The MEMS is a 15-item multidimensional measure based on a tripartite conceptualization of meaning in life encompassing comprehension (life coherence), purpose (goal-directedness), and mattering (perceived significance). Participants rated each item on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (very strongly disagree) to 7 (very strongly agree). Each subscale consists of five items, and subscale scores were computed by averaging corresponding items, with one mattering item reverse scored. Higher scores indicate greater levels of comprehension, purpose, and mattering.