Neuro-Psychophysiological Characteristics of Athletes With Varying Levels of Experience

This study is designed as a randomized controlled trial to examine the effects of volleyball-specific stroboscopic training on neuro-psychophysiological outcomes in athletes with different levels of competitive experience. Female volleyball players aged 10-16 years will be classified into three experience-based groups (novice, intermediate, and elite) according to their training history. Within each experience level, participants will be randomly assigned to either a stroboscopic training group or a control group, resulting in six study groups in total.

All participants will continue their routine volleyball training throughout the study period. In addition, athletes in the intervention group will complete an 8-week volleyball-specific stroboscopic training program, performed three times per week for a total of 24 sessions. Each training session will last approximately 35 minutes and will consist of volleyball-related drills, including passing, setting, receiving, rotation-based movements, and reaction-based tasks. Participants in the stroboscopic training group will perform these drills while wearing stroboscopic glasses with progressively adjusted visual disruption parameters, whereas the control group will perform the same drills under normal visual conditions.

Neuro-psychophysiological assessments will be conducted before and after the training period. Primary and secondary outcome measures will include heart rate variability, electrodermal activity, functional near-infrared spectroscopy recordings of prefrontal cortical activity, dual-task performance under varying levels of cognitive-motor demand, and eye-tracking parameters such as pupil diameter and fixation behavior. Psychological measures will also be collected using validated self-report instruments.

All measurements will be performed under standardized laboratory conditions. The study aims to determine whether stroboscopic training leads to differential neuro-psychophysiological adaptations across experience levels and whether such adaptations are associated with improved regulation of cognitive, physiological, and perceptual-motor processes relevant to volleyball performance.

Inclusion criteria

• Female volleyball players aged 10 to 16 years
• Actively competing in organized volleyball
• Regular participation in team training sessions
• Classified as novice, intermediate, or elite based on training experience
• Written parental/legal guardian informed consent and participant assent obtained

Exclusion criteria

• Presence of any chronic medical condition affecting study outcomes
• Use of supplements or medications that may influence performance
• Current injury or participation in a rehabilitation program
• Failure to attend scheduled training sessions
• Inability to complete baseline or post-intervention assessments
• Injury occurring during the study period that prevents continued participation