Impact of General Anesthesia in Childhood on Cognitive Processes

This study investigates the long-term cognitive effects of early exposure to general anesthesia in children. Specifically, it focuses on evaluating executive functions-namely inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility-in children aged 9-10 years who underwent functional surgery with general anesthesia before age 4. A secondary objective includes assessing visuo-spatial attention and general intelligence.

Executive functions will be measured using standardized, computerized tasks. Inhibition will be assessed through both an emotional Stroop (hot inhibition) and a classic Stroop task (cold inhibition). Working memory will be evaluated using a spatial sequence recall task on a grid, in both forward and reverse order. Flexibility will be measured through an adapted version of the computerized Trail Making Test, requiring rule-switching between tasks based on stimulus color.

Visuo-spatial abilities will be assessed using a global-local task involving hierarchical visual stimuli, allowing for evaluation of attention to detail versus overall structure. General intelligence will be measured using Raven's Progressive Matrices.

Participants will be recruited from selected elementary schools in partnership with local educational authorities. Eligible children will be grouped based on prior exposure to general anesthesia, matched on age, sex, and socio-economic status. Testing will occur in school settings during class time under controlled, blinded conditions. Data will be anonymized and processed in accordance with GDPR standards. Statistical analyses will include MANOVA and linear models to assess group differences.

Inclusion criteria

Children aged 9-10 years Mainstream class (non-specialized) Requirement for information on the right to object Requirement for affiliation with social security French-speaking

Exclusion criteria

Criteria for "Parents" Parental refusal Twins Exposure to general anesthesia during pregnancy, including cesarean section under general anesthesia

Pregnancy-related pathology:

• Pregnancy-induced hypertension
• Preeclampsia
• Gestational diabetes
• Threat of preterm labor
• Depressive syndrome

Chronic treatment during pregnancy:

• Pregnancy-induced hypertension: antihypertensive treatment (beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers)
• Preeclampsia: antihypertensive treatment (beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers), magnesium sulfate
• Gestational diabetes: dietary regimen, insulin
• Threat of preterm labor: prenatal corticosteroid therapy, magnesium sulfate
• Depressive syndrome: antidepressant psychotropic treatment Smoking during pregnancy, alcohol consumption during pregnancy, drug use during pregnancy Criteria for "Children" Child refusal to participate in the study Premature birth (i.e., before 37 weeks of gestation) Evolving or chronic psychiatric pathology, whether or not requiring chronic treatment Evolving or chronic neurological or neuromuscular pathology Genetic pathology Any chronic pathology requiring specialized follow-up and/or treatment (doctor, psychologist, speech therapist) Specialized neuro-pediatric or pediatric psychiatric follow-up, or follow-up with a psychologist or speech therapist during childhood Neuro-visual disorders (excluding normal vision with correction) Hearing disorders, whether or not using hearing aids Chronic otorhinolaryngological pathology, including sleep apnea syndrome, with or without apparatus Developmental disorders: ADHD, autism, or other, whether or not requiring chronic treatment Pediatric intensive care hospitalization Conventional hospitalization for more than 1 week during childhood Child who underwent multiple general anesthesias before the age of 4