Health Behavior Change During COVID-19 Pandemic

The 12-item self-report measure of adherence to handwashing guidelines across situations (e.g., after visiting public spaces, after touching garbage, etc.) based on the guidelines issued by the World Health Organization and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The responses are provided on a 4-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Higher scores indicate better outcomes (the higher level of adherence to handwashing guidelines).

The 1-item self-report measure of the frequency of handwashing (for at least 20 seconds, all surfaces of the hands) daily. The responses are provided on a 4-point scale, ranging from 1 (less than once) to 5 (more than 10 times). Higher scores indicate better outcomes (the higher frequency of handwashing).

4 self-efficacy questionnaire items; mean item score ranging from 1 to 4, higher scores indicate stronger self-efficacy

3 questionnaire items to assess risk perception; mean item score ranging from 1 to 5, higher scores indicate higher risk perception

4 items assessing positive (1 item) and negative (1 items) outcome expectancies; mean item scores ranging from 1 to 4, higher scores indicate more positive outcome expectancies

2 questionnaire items assessing intention to adhere to handwashing recommendations; mean item scores ranging from 1 to 4, higher scores indicate stronger intention to wash hands (for at least 20 seconds, all surfaces of the hands)

2 questionnaire items assessing action planning (1 item) and coping planning (1 item); mean item scores ranging from 1 to 4, higher scores indicate a higher level of self-reported planning

3 questionnaire items assessing a facet of action control, namely self-monitoring; mean item scores ranging from 1 to 4, higher scores indicate a higher level of self-reported monitoring of handwashing behavior

1 questionnaire item assessing perceptions of handwashing as an effective means of preventing coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 infection; item scores ranging from 1 to 4, higher scores indicate a higher level of perceived effectiveness of hand hygiene

7-item self-report scale (Generalized Anxiety Disorder, GAD-7) scale to assess anxiety symptoms; mean item scores ranging from 1 to 4, higher scores indicate a higher level of generalized anxiety

The daily cumulative numbers for COVID-19 morbidity and mortality in the study countries. Published daily as the Situation Report by World Health Organization, starting on 21 January 2020. Higher numbers indicate the higher cumulative COVID-19 morbidity and mortality rates in the country.