Cognitive Effects of Hesperidin in Overweight/Obese Older Adults

Units on a Scale (0 to 30 points).Higher scores indicate better cognitive function. Scores ≥25 are generally considered normal; scores <24 suggest cognitive impairment.

Units on a Scale (0 to 30 points).Higher scores indicate better cognitive function. Scores ≥26 are considered normal; scores 18-25 indicate mild cognitive impairment; scores 10-17 indicate moderate impairment; scores <10 indicate severe impairment.

Units on a Scale (0 to 30 points). Higher scores indicate worse cognitive function (greater impairment).

Unit of Measure is Seconds. Shorter completion times indicate better cognitive function. Part B assesses executive function and cognitive flexibility; a higher TMT-B/TMT-A ratio may indicate greater impairment.

Unit of Measur is Number of correct responses. Higher scores indicate better processing speed, sustained attention, and working memory.

Raw scores for each subtest are converted to scaled scores using norm tables; scaled scores are summed to obtain the full-scale score, which is then converted to a Memory Quotient (MQ) using norm tables.Higher scores indicate better memory function. The Memory Quotient (MQ) normally ranges from 80 to 120. Scores below 80 suggest below-average memory performance; scores above 120 suggest above-average memory performance.

Changes in gut microbiota composition and diversity assessed by 16S rRNA sequencing or metagenomic analysis of fecal samples. Primary focus on alpha and beta diversity, and relative abundance of key bacterial taxa (e.g., Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, Akkermansia).

Changes in serum levels of pro-inflammatory markers including tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and C-reactive protein (CRP), measured by ELISA or multiplex assays.

Change in body weight measured using standard anthropometric procedures, reported in kilograms (kg); reduction indicates improvement in weight status.

Change in waist circumference measured using standard anthropometric procedures at the midpoint between the lowest rib and the iliac crest, reported in centimeters (cm); reduction indicates improvement in central adiposity.

BMI calculated as body weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters (kg/m²). Height was measured at baseline only using standard anthropometric procedures. Reduction in BMI indicates improvement in overall adiposity. Per Chinese BMI classification standards: 24.0-27.9 kg/m² (overweight) and ≥28.0 kg/m² (obese); the study enrolled participants with BMI ≥ 24.0 kg/m².