Breath, Stress and Health: a Biocultural Study of Hatha Yoga Practice

Heart rate variability (HRV) is measured by electrocardiogram.

Heart rate variability (HRV) is measured by electrocardiogram. Participants will be categorized as higher teacher-rated "engaged participation" or lower teacher-rated "engaged participation" and these groups will be compared.

Skin conductance level (SCL) is measured by electrodermal activity (EDA).

Skin conductance level (SCL) is measured by electrodermal activity (EDA). Participants will be categorized as higher teacher-rated "engaged participation" or lower teacher-rated "engaged participation" and these groups will be compared.

Skin conductance response is measured by electrodermal activity (EDA).

Skin conductance response is measured by electrodermal activity (EDA). Participants will be categorized as higher teacher-rated "engaged participation" or lower teacher-rated "engaged participation" and these groups will be compared.

Oxidative stress will be measured by ROS levels.

Oxidative stress will be measured by ROS levels. Participants will be categorized as higher teacher-rated "engaged participation" or lower teacher-rated "engaged participation" and these groups will be compared.

Change in TAS will be measured by blood sample analysis.

Change in TAS will be measured by blood sample analysis. Participants will be categorized as higher teacher-rated "engaged participation" or lower teacher-rated "engaged participation" and these groups will be compared.

Glutathione (GSH) is an antioxidant capable of preventing damage to important cellular components caused by reactive oxygen species such as free radicals, peroxides, lipid peroxides, and heavy metals. Change in levels of GSH will be measured by blood sample analysis.

Glutathione (GSH) is an antioxidant capable of preventing damage to important cellular components caused by reactive oxygen species such as free radicals, peroxides, lipid peroxides, and heavy metals. Change in levels of GSH will be measured by blood sample analysis. Participants will be categorized as higher teacher-rated "engaged participation" or lower teacher-rated "engaged participation" and these groups will be compared.

Interleukin 6 (IL-6) is an interleukin that acts as both a pro-inflammatory cytokine and an anti-inflammatory myokine. Levels of circulating IL-6 will be assessed by blood sample analysis.

Interleukin 6 (IL-6) is an interleukin that acts as both a pro-inflammatory cytokine and an anti-inflammatory myokine. Levels of circulating IL-6 will be assessed by blood sample analysis. Participants will be categorized as higher teacher-rated "engaged participation" or lower teacher-rated "engaged participation" and these groups will be compared.

Tumor necrosis factor is a cell signaling protein (cytokine) involved in systemic inflammation. Change in levels of circulating TNF-α will be assessed by blood sample analysis.

Tumor necrosis factor is a cell signaling protein (cytokine) involved in systemic inflammation. Change in levels of Circulating TNF-α will be assessed by blood sample analysis. Participants will be categorized as higher teacher-rated "engaged participation" or lower teacher-rated "engaged participation" and these groups will be compared.

Upper abdominal muscular tension levels is assessed as Muscle Tone and Muscle Stiffness, and is measured by the MyotonPlus digital palpation device at a precise site on the upper region of the Rectus Abdominis (RA) muscle.

Upper abdominal muscular tension levels is assessed as Muscle Tone and Muscle Stiffness, and is measured by the MyotonPlus digital palpation device at a precise site on the upper region of the Rectus Abdominis (RA) muscle.

Self-assessment questions covering "how do you feel", with ongoing 3 daily-based questions once a week.

The Perceived Stress Reactivity Scale (PSRS), a 23-item questionnaire with 5 subscales (Prolonged Reactivity, Reactivity to Failure, Reactivity to Social Conflicts, Reactivity to Work Overload, and Reactivity to Social Evaluation) and 1 overall scale. The PSRS overall score ranges from 0 to 30 and higher scores are associated with increased symptoms of depression and sleep disturbances.

The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) is a 10-item instrument assessing feelings and thoughts related to stress during the past month. Each item is rated on a 5-point scale ranging from never (0) to very often (4). Total scores range from 0 to 40 with higher scores indicating higher perceived stress.

The Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) is a 36-item instrument assessing emotion dysregulation and includes six subscales (non-acceptance of emotions, difficulty with goal-directed behavior in the presence of negative emotions, difficulty controlling impulses in the presence of negative emotions, lack of awareness of emotions, limited use of effective emotion regulation strategies, and lack of understanding of emotions). Responses are scaled from 1 (almost never) to 5 (almost always). Total raw scores range from 36 to 180; certain items are reverse scored so that higher scores indicate increased difficulty with emotion regulation.

The DASS is a 42-item self-administered questionnaire designed to measure the magnitude of three negative emotional states: depression, anxiety, and stress. The DASS-Depression focuses on reports of low mood, motivation, and self-esteem, DASS-anxiety on physiological arousal, perceived panic, and fear, and DASS-stress on tension and irritability. Individual patient scores on the DASS subscales can be interpreted by converting them to z-scores and comparing to the normative values contained within the DASS manual. A z-score < 0.5 is considered to be within the normal range, a z-score of 0.5 to 1.0 is mild, 1.0 to 2.0 is moderate, 2.0 to 3.0 is considered severe, and z-scores > 3 are considered to be extremely severe depression/anxiety/stress.

The Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ) is a self-administered, 16-item, Likert-type scale designed to measure the trait of worry. Responses to items are rated from 1 to 5 where less worry = 1 and a lot of worry = 5. Total scores range from 16 to 80 and higher scores indicate greater severity of the trait of worry.

The Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) consists of 10 positively and 10 negatively valanced word items. Items are rated by the participant for the extent they are feeling this "right now" on a scale of 1- slightly or not at all through 5- extremely. Total scores can range from 10 to 50, with higher scores representing higher levels of positive effect and lower scores having negative effect.

The BDI-II is a self-report 21-item scale used to assess the current severity of depression. Each item is rated on a four-point scale (0 to 3) with possible total scores ranging from 0 to 63. Scores provide a measure of the severity of self-reported depression: 0 -9 minimal, 10 -16 mild, 17-29 moderate, and 30 - 63 severe.

The BAI-II is a 21-item self-report measure of anxiety symptoms, rated on a 4-point Likert scale. Items are rated from 0 = not at all to 3 = severely. Total scores range from 0 to 63 and higher scores indicate greater anxiety.

The Profile of Mood States (POMS) scale is a 30-item psychological rating scale used to assess transient, distinct mood states. Participants rate the extent to which they feel unhappy, blue, lonely, gloomy, and worthless on a scale from 0 (not at all) to 4 (extremely). Scores range from 0 to 120 with higher scores reflecting a more negative mood state.

The CSES is a 26-item scale that measures one's perceived ability to cope with life's difficulties. Responses are given on a scale from 0 to 10 where 0 = cannot do at all and 10 = certain can do. Total scores range from 0 to 260 where higher scores indicate greater self-efficacy with coping skills.

The Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA) assesses various aspects of interoception with 8 subscales of: Noticing, Not-Distracting, Not-Worrying, Attention Regulation, Emotional Awareness, Self-Regulation, Body Listening, and Trusting. The subscales include 3 to 7 items and scored by taking the average of the item responses. Responses are given on a 6-point scale where "never" = 0 and "always" = 5. Total scores for each subscale range from 0 to 5 and higher scores indicate greater levels of interoceptive awareness.

The Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) is a 15-item instrument assessing mindfulness (attention to what is occurring in the present). Responses are given on a 6-point scale where "almost always" = 1 and "almost never" = 6. The total score is the average of responses to the 15 items and ranges from 1 to 6 where higher scores indicate greater mindfulness to the present moment.

The Compassion Scale (CS) is a 16-item instrument assessing compassion for others. Responses are given on a 5-point scale where "almost never" = 1 and "almost always" = 5. The total score is the average of responses to the 16 items and ranges from 1 to 5 where higher scores indicate greater compassion towards others.

The Self-Compassion Scale - Short Form (SCS-SF) is a 12-item instrument assessing self-compassion. Responses are given on a 5-point scale where "almost never" = 1 and "almost always" = 5. The total score is the average of responses to the 12 items and ranges from 1 to 5 where higher scores indicate greater self-compassion.

The Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) is a 39-item instrument with five subscales of: Observing, Describing, Acting with Awareness, Nonjudging, and Nonreactivity. Responses are given on a 5-point scale where "never or very rarely true" = 1 and "very often or always true" = 5. Scores can be obtained for each subscale and for a total score by averaging item responses. Total scores range from 1 to 5 where higher scores indicate greater mindfulness.

The Heartland Forgiveness Scale is an 18-item instrument assessing dispositional forgiveness, with 3 subscales of: Forgiveness of Self, Forgiveness of Others, and Forgiveness of Situations. Responses are given on a 7-point scale where "almost always false of me" = 1 and "almost always true of me" = 7. Total scores for each subscale range from 6 to 42, and the overall total score ranges from 18 to 126. Higher scores indicate greater dispositional forgiveness.

The Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale- Revised (CAMS-R) instrument assessing mindfulness with 12 items. Responses are given on a 4-point scale where "rarely/not at all" = 1 and "almost always" = 5. The total score ranges from 12 to 48 and higher scores indicate greater mindfulness.

The Gratitude Questionnaire - Six Item Form (GQ-6) instrument measures the experience of gratitude in daily life with 6 items. Responses are given on a 7-point scale where "strongly disagree" = 1 and "strongly agree" = 7. The total score is the average of responses to the 6 items and ranges from 1 to 7 where higher scores indicate greater gratitude.

The Spiritual Meaning Scale (SMS) measures an individuals belief that life has a purpose, will, or way. The 14 items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale where "I totally disagree" = 1 and "I totally agree" = 5. Total scores range from 14 to 70 where higher scores indicate greater feelings of spiritual meaning.

Telomeres are caps at the ends of chromosomes that, based on primary research, are shown to shorten each time a cell divides. Telomere length (TL) is used as is a marker of cellular aging as shorter telomeres indicate limited cellular life, an indicator of senescence, used overall to comment on longevity of those being measured. Population studies use telomere length (TL) in studies of population health and lifespan. Telomere length (TL) will be measured by blood sample analysis.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor is a member of the neurotrophin family of growth factors, will be measured by blood sample analysis.

Change in Growth Hormone level will be measured by blood sample analysis.

Change in Oxytocin level will be measured by blood sample analysis.

Change in Ghrelin level will be measured by blood sample analysis.

Change in Leptin level will be measured by blood sample analysis.