Sports-Based Cognitive Game Program and Attention in Athletes

This study used a pre-test-post-test, randomized controlled experimental design to examine the effects of a 12-week sports-based cognitive game development program on selective attention performance and prefrontal EEG theta/beta ratio (TBR) in active university athletes.

Participants were randomly assigned to an experimental group (n = 45) or a control group (n = 50) using a computer-assisted random number table. Baseline equivalence between groups was confirmed for both outcome measures prior to the intervention (d2 TNE: t(93) = -0.514, p = .608; Fz theta/beta: t(93) = 1.128, p = .262).

The experimental group participated in a structured, five-stage sports-based cognitive game development program, delivered twice weekly for 12 weeks (24 sessions total, 45 minutes per session). The program followed a gradual cognitive load principle across five stages: (1) adaptation and basic cognitive infrastructure, (2) attention and reaction development, (3) decision-making and strategy, (4) concentration and multitasking performance, and (5) reinforcement and transfer to sport. Each session consisted of five fixed components: greeting and orientation (3 min), attention warm-up exercises (5 min), cognitive reaction games (15 min), strategy and decision-making games (15 min), and evaluation/closing (7 min). Sessions were delivered by a single PhD-level sport sciences researcher, and fidelity was monitored using structured session control forms.

The control group continued their regular sports training without any additional intervention during the 12-week period.

Outcome measures were collected at baseline and following the 12-week period:

• Selective attention performance was assessed using the d2 Attention Test, with the Total Net Error (TNE) score as the primary behavioral outcome (TNE = TN - E2).
• Prefrontal EEG theta (4-8 Hz) to beta (13-21 Hz) power ratio was recorded from the Fz electrode (International 10-20 system, linked-earlobe reference A1-A2) using a Nexus 10 Mk II neurofeedback device and BioTrace+ software, during a 10-minute eyes-closed resting condition (first and last 30 seconds discarded; minimum 8 minutes of artifact-free data required per participant).

The d2 Attention Test and EEG recording were conducted in separate sessions on the same day, in a fixed order (d2 test first, then EEG), separated by a minimum 30-minute rest interval, to control for order and fatigue effects.

Data were analyzed using 2 (Group: Experimental, Control) x 2 (Time: Pre-test, Post-test) mixed-design ANOVA, with Bonferroni-corrected post hoc comparisons (adjusted alpha = .0125) and Welch t-tests where variance homogeneity was violated. Gender was examined as a covariate using ANCOVA, given its known association with EEG frequency characteristics; gender did not significantly affect either outcome after controlling for pre-test scores.

Note: As data collection for this study was already complete at the time of registration, this is a retrospective trial registration.

Inclusion criteria

• Actively engaged in sports/regular athletic training
• No neurological or psychiatric diagnosis in the past six months
• Continuing a regular exercise program throughout the study period
• Full participation in all intervention sessions (for experimental group) or willingness to continue regular sports training (for control group)
• Aged 18-25 years
• Voluntary participation with written informed consent

Exclusion criteria

• Neurological or psychiatric diagnosis within the past six months
• Inability to attend the required number of sessions
• Withdrawal of informed consent